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How to open DEMAT Account in Nepal?

Demat Account is used to hold shares and securities in electronic format. It stands for the dematerialised account. The main goal of opening this is to keep shares that have been purchased or dematerialised (converted from physical to electronic shares). The dematerialisation of shares eliminates the risk associated with physical certificates and eases users for online transactions.

Characteristics of Computer

Characteristics of Computer

• SPEED : In general, no human being can compete to solving the complex computation, faster than computer.

• ACCURACY : Since Computer is programmed, so what ever input we give it gives result with accurately.

• STORAGE : Computer can store mass storage of data with appropriate format.

• DILIGENCE : Computer can work for hours without any break and creating error.

• VERSATILITY : We can use computer to perform completely different type of work at the same time.

• POWER OF REMEMBERING : It can remember data for us.

• NO IQ : Computer does not work without instruction.

• NO FEELING : Computer does not have emotions, knowledge, experience, feeling.

Computer and its components

Computer : Computer itself a combination of different type of separate electronic device. i.e. Computer only will be computer if it has INPUT DEVICE, PROCESS UNIT, and OUTPUT DEVICE.

Central Processing Unit (CPU) : It is heart and mind of the computer without this unit computer unable to process.

Keyboard : This is an input device which is used to input the data into the computer.

Mouse : This is also an input device which is used to input the data into the computer.

Monitor : This is an output device which is used to show the result of the instructions.

There are variety of monitor available in the market such as, CRT Monitor, LCD Monitor, Touch Screen Monitor, TFT Monitor etc.

Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS) : This is and electronic device which is used to manage the power supply of computer.

Hard Disk (HDD) : This is used to store the data in massive amount. There are so many type of HDD available in the market, i.e. SATA, PATA, External HDD, Internal HDD.

Printer : This is an out put device which is used to show the result on the paper. There are plenty of printer available in the market like inkjet, Laser printer, dot matrix printer etc.

Universal Serial Bus (USB) : This is used to connect the external device to the computer.

Ethernet Cable : This is used to connect computer with other computer.

CD/DVD ROM : This is used to store the data.

Speaker : This is an output device which is used to listen voice, songs, etc.

Mike : This is an Input device which is used to record the sound .

Laptop : This is complete computer which can be carried anywhere any time.

Netbook : This is called mini laptop which is generally lighter and smaller than laptop.

Random Access Memory (RAM) : This is called primary memory. This is also called main memory of the computer. Whatever data is written in this memory, is lost after switching off the system.

Read Only Memory (ROM) : This is called primary memory. Data is written in this memory by the vendor of the computer permanently.

Pen Drive : This is very popular device now a days for carrying data on move.

Blue Ray Disk : This is same as CD/DVD but only different is it can store multi time of data from CD/DVD and faster than CD/DVD.

Scanner : This is an input device which is used to scan the document for the soft copy.

LCD : It is known as Liquid Crystal Display. It is an output device as monitor.

Motherboard : It is a combination of electronic circuits.

Sound Card : This is also a combination of electronic circuits which helps to give out put in the form of sound.

Graphics Card : This is also a combination of electronic circuits which helps to give output the data into the monitor.

Fundamental-Computer: Definition

Computer: Definition 

A computer is a machine that can be programmed to manipulate symbols. Its principal characteristics are:

• It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner.


• It can execute a prerecorded list of instructions (a program).


• It can quickly store and retrieve large amounts of data.

Therefore computers can perform complex and repetitive procedures quickly, precisely and reliably. Modern computers are electronic and digital. The actual machinery (wires, transistors, and circuits) is called hardware; the instructions and data are called software. All general-purpose computers require the following hardware components:

• Central processing unit (CPU): The heart of the computer, this is the component that actually executes instructions organized in programs ("software") which tell the computer what to do.


• Memory (fast, expensive, short-term memory): Enables a computer to store, at least temporarily, data, programs, and intermediate results.


• Mass storage device (slower, cheaper, long-term memory): Allows a computer to permanently retain large amounts of data and programs between jobs. Common mass storage devices include disk drives and tape drives.


• Input device: Usually a keyboard and mouse, the input device is the conduit through which data and instructions enter a computer.


• Output device: A display screen, printer, or other device that lets you see what the computer has accomplished.

In addition to these components, many others make it possible for the basic components to work together efficiently. For example, every computer requires a bus that transmits data from one part of the computer to another.

Computer sizes and power

Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is considerable overlap:

• Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor.


• Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and, in general, a higher-quality monitor.


• Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting up to hundreds of users simultaneously.


• Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.


• Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of instructions per second.

Supercomputer and Mainframe

Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting). Perhaps the best known supercomputer manufacturer is Cray Research.

Mainframe was a term originally referring to the cabinet containing the central processor unit or "main frame" of a room-filling Stone Age batch machine. After the emergence of smaller "minicomputer" designs in the early 1970s, the traditional big iron machines were described as "mainframe computers" and eventually just as mainframes. Nowadays a Mainframe is a very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users simultaneously. The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe. The distinction between small mainframes and minicomputers is vague, depending really on how the manufacturer wants to market its machines.

Minicomputer

It is a midsize computer. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting from up to 200 users simultaneously.

Workstation

It is a type of computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software development, and other types of applications that require a moderate amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities. Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, at large amount of RAM, built-in network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a disk less workstation, comes without a disk drive. The most common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like personal computers, most workstations are single-user computers. However, workstations are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.

N.B.: In networking, workstation refers to any computer connected to a local-area network. It could be a workstation or a personal computer.

Personal computer:

It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. In price, personal computers range anywhere from a few hundred pounds to over five thousand pounds. All are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers is for playing games and recently for surfing the Internet.

Personal computers first appeared in the late 1970s. One of the first and most popular personal computers was the Apple II, introduced in 1977 by Apple Computer. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, new models and competing operating systems seemed to appear daily. Then, in 1981, IBM entered the fray with its first personal computer, known as the IBM PC. The IBM PC quickly became the personal computer of choice, and most other personal computer manufacturers fell by the wayside. P.C. is short for personal computer or IBM PC. One of the few companies to survive IBM's onslaught was Apple Computer, which remains a major player in the personal computer marketplace. Other companies adjusted to IBM's dominance by building IBM clones, computers that were internally almost the same as the IBM PC, but that cost less. Because IBM clones used the same microprocessors as IBM PCs, they were capable of running the same software. Over the years, IBM has lost much of its influence in directing the evolution of PCs. Therefore after the release of the first PC by IBM the term PC increasingly came to mean IBM or IBM-compatible personal computers, to the exclusion of other types of personal computers, such as Macintosh's. In recent years, the term PC has become more and more difficult to pin down. In general, though, it applies to any personal computer based on an Intel microprocessor, or on an Intel-compatible microprocessor. For nearly every other component, including the operating system, there are several options, all of which fall under the rubric of PC

Today, the world of personal computers is basically divided between Apple Macintosh's and PCs. The principal characteristics of personal computers are that they are single-user systems and are based on microprocessors. However, although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, it is common to link them together to form a network. In terms of power, there is great variety. At the high end, the distinction between personal computers and workstations has faded. High-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun Micro systems, Hewlett-Packard, and DEC.

Personal Computer Types

Actual personal computers can be generally classified by size and chassis / case. The chassis or case is the metal frame that serves as the structural support for electronic components. Every computer system requires at least one chassis to house the circuit boards and wiring. The chassis also contains slots for expansion boards. If you want to insert more boards than there are slots, you will need an expansion chassis, which provides additional slots. There are two basic flavors of chassis designs–desktop models and tower models–but there are many variations on these two basic types. Then come the portable computers that are computers small enough to carry. Portable computers include notebook and sub notebook computers, hand-held computers, palmtops, and PDAs.

Tower model

The term refers to a computer in which the power supply, motherboard, and mass storage devices are stacked on top of each other in a cabinet. This is in contrast to desktop models, in which these components are housed in a more compact box. The main advantage of tower models is that there are fewer space constraints, which makes installation of additional storage devices easier.

Desktop model

A computer designed to fit comfortably on top of a desk, typically with the monitor sitting on top of the computer. Desktop model computers are broad and low, whereas tower model computers are narrow and tall. Because of their shape, desktop model computers are generally limited to three internal mass storage devices. Desktop models designed to be very small are sometimes referred to as slimline models.

Notebook computer

An extremely lightweight personal computer. Notebook computers typically weigh less than 6 pounds and are small enough to fit easily in a briefcase. Aside from size, the principal difference between a notebook computer and a personal computer is the display screen. Notebook computers use a variety of techniques, known as flat-panel technologies, to produce a lightweight and non-bulky display screen. The quality of notebook display screens varies considerably. In terms of computing power, modern notebook computers are nearly equivalent to personal computers. They have the same CPU's, memory capacity, and disk drives. However, all this power in a small package is expensive. Notebook computers cost about twice as much as equivalent regular-sized computers. Notebook computers come with battery packs that enable you to run them without plugging them in. However, the batteries need to be recharged every few hours.

Laptop computer

A small, portable computer -- small enough that it can sit on your lap. Nowadays, laptop computers are more frequently called notebook computers.

Sub notebook computer

A portable computer that is slightly lighter and smaller than a full-sized notebook computer. Typically, sub notebook computers have a smaller keyboard and screen, but are otherwise equivalent to notebook computers.

Hand-held computer

A portable computer that is small enough to be held in one’s hand. Although extremely convenient to carry, handheld computers have not replaced notebook computers because of their small keyboards and screens. The most popular hand-held computers are those that are specifically designed to provide PIM (personal information manager) functions, such as a calendar and address book. Some manufacturers are trying to solve the small keyboard problem by replacing the keyboard with an electronic pen. However, these pen-based devices rely on handwriting recognition technologies, which are still in their infancy. Hand-held computers are also called PDAs, palmtops and pocket computers.

Palmtop

A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-size computers, palmtops are severely limited, but they are practical for certain functions such as phone books and calendars. Palmtops that use a pen rather than a keyboard for input are often called hand-held computers or PDAs. Because of their small size, most palmtop computers do not include disk drives. However, many contain PCMCIA slots in which you can insert disk drives, modems, memory, and other devices. Palmtops are also called PDAs, hand-held computers and pocket computers.

PDA

Short for personal digital assistant, a handheld device that combines computing, telephone/fax, and networking features. A typical PDA can function as a cellular phone, fax sender, and personal organizer. Unlike portable computers, most PDAs are pen-based, using a stylus rather than a keyboard for input. This means that they also incorporate handwriting recognition features. Some PDAs can also react to voice input by using voice recognition technologies. The field of PDA was pioneered by Apple Computer, which introduced the Newton Message Pad in 1993. Shortly thereafter, several other manufacturers offered similar products. To date, PDAs have had only modest success in the marketplace, due to their high price tags and limited applications. However, many experts believe that PDAs will eventually become common gadgets.

PDAs are also called palmtops, hand-held computers and pocket computers.

Fundamentals-Kinds of Computer & Computer Language.

 Language Processors:

• Assembler: This language processor converts the program written in assembly language into machine language.
• Interpreter: This language processor converts High-Level Language program into machine language by converting and executing it line by line.
• Compiler:-It also converts the HLL program into machine language but the conversion manner is different. It converts the entire HLL program in one go and reports all the errors of the program along with the line numbers.

Software

Software represents the set of programs that govern the operation of a computer system and make the hardware run.

This type of software is tailor-made software according to a user’s requirements.

Analog computers

• Analog computers always take input in form of signals.
• The input data is not a number infect a physical quantity like temp., pressure, speed, velocity.
• Signals are continuous of (0 to 10 V).
• Accuracy 1% Approximately.
• Example: Speedometer.

Digital Computers

• These computers take the input in the form of digits & alphabets & converted it into binary format.
• Digital computers are high speed, programmable electronic devices.
• Signals are two level of (0 for low/off 1 for high/on).
• Accuracy unlimited.
• Examples: Computer used for the purpose of business and education is also an example of digital computers.

Hybrid Computer

• The combination of features of an analog and digital computer is called a Hybrid computer.
• The main examples are central national defense and passenger flight radar system.
• They are also used to control robots.

Super Computer

• The biggest in size.
• Most Expensive
• It can process trillions of instructions in seconds.
• This computer is not used as a PC in a home neither by a student in a college.
• Used by Govt. for different calculations and heavy jobs.
• Supercomputers are used for the heavy stuff like weather maps, construction of atom bombs, earthquake prediction etc.

Mainframes

• It can also process millions of instruction per second.
• It can handle processing of many users at a time.
• Less expensive than Supercomputer
• It is commonly used in Hospitals, Air Reservation Companies as it can retrieve data on a huge basis.
• This is normally too expensive and out of reach from a salary-based person.
• It can cost up to thousands of Dollars.

Mini Computer

• These computers are preferred mostly by small type of business personals, colleges etc.
• These computers are cheaper than above two.
• Its an intermediary between microcomputer and mainframe.

Micro Computer/ Personal Computer

• It is mostly preferred by Home Users.
• Cost is less compared to above.
• Small in size.
• A microcomputer contains a central processing unit on a microchip in the form of read-only memory and random access memory, and a housed in a unit that is usually called a motherboard.

Notebook Computers

• Notebook computers typically weigh less than 6 pounds and are small enough to fit easily in a briefcase.
• The principal difference between a notebook computer and a personal computer is the display screen.
• Many notebook display screens are limited to VGA resolution.

Programming Languages

There are two major types of programming languages. These are Low-Level Languages and High-Level Languages.

Low-Level languages are further divided into Machine language and Assembly language.

Low-Level Languages: The term low level means closeness to the way in which the machine has been built. Low-level languages are machine oriented and require extensive knowledge of computer hardware and its configuration.

Machine Language: Machine Language is the only language that is directly understood by the computer. It does not need any translator program. We also call it machine code and it is written as strings of 1's (one) and 0’s (zero). When this sequence of codes is fed to the computer, it recognizes the codes and converts it into electrical signals needed to run it.

For example, a program instruction may look like this:  1011000111101

It is not an easy language for you to learn because of its difficult to understand. It is efficient for the computer but very inefficient for programmers. It is considered to the first generation language.

Advantage:

• Program of machine language run very fast because no translation program is required for the CPU.

Disadvantages

• It is very difficult to program in machine language. The programmer has to know details of hardware to write a program.
• The programmer has to remember a lot of codes to write a program which results in program errors.
• It is difficult to debug the program.

Assembly Language

It is the first step to improve the programming structure. You should know that computer can handle numbers and letter. Therefore some combination of letters can be used to substitute for a number of machine codes.

The set of symbols and letters forms the Assembly Language and a translator program is required to translate the Assembly Language to machine language. This translator program is called `Assembler'. It is considered to be a second-generation language.

Advantages:

• The symbolic programming of Assembly Language is easier to understand and saves a lot of time and effort of the programmer.
• It is easier to correct errors and modify program instructions.
• Assembly Language has the same efficiency of execution as the machine level language. Because this is a one-to-one translator between assembly language program and its corresponding machine language program.

Disadvantages:

• Assembly language is machine dependent.
• A program written for one computer might not run on other computers with different hardware configuration.

High-Level languages

You know that assembly language and machine level language require deep knowledge of computer hardware whereas in a higher language you have to know only the instructions in English words and logic of the problem irrespective of the type of computer you are using.

• Higher level languages are simple languages that use English and mathematical symbols like +, -, %, / for its program construction.
• You should know that any higher level language has to be converted to machine language for the computer to understand.
• Higher level languages are problem-oriented languages because the instructions are suitable for solving a particular problem.

For example, COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) is most suitable for a business-oriented language where there are very little processing and huge output.

There are mathematically oriented languages like FORTRAN (Formula Translation) and BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) where very large processing is required.

Thus a problem-oriented language designed in such a way that its instruction may be written more like the language of the problem. For example, businessmen use the business term and scientists use scientific terms in their respective languages.

Advantages of High-Level Languages

• Higher level languages have a major advantage over machine and assembly languages that higher level languages are easy to learn and use.
• It is because that they are similar to the languages used by us in our day to day life.

Fundamentals-Introduction of computer

 Computer Fundamentals, that will help you succeed in the upcoming exam.

Computer:  

A computer is a truly amazing machine that performs a specified sequence of operations as per the set of instructions (known as programs) given on a set of data (input) to generate desired information (output).

Computer is an electronic Machine that accepts data using input device then store and processes them to generate desired  output.

A complete computer system consists of four parts:

• Hardware: Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of the computer.
• Software: Software is a set of electronic instructions consisting of complex codes (Programs) that make the computer perform tasks.
• User: The computer operators are known as users.
• Data: Consists of raw facts, which the computer stores and reads in the form of numbers.
• The following features characterize this electronic machine:
  • Speed
  • Accuracy
  • Storage and Retrieval
  • Repeated Processing Capabilities
  • Reliability
  • Flexibility
  • Low cost 
  These three steps constitute the data processing cycle.
  
  • Input -Input data is prepared in some convenient form for processing. The form will depend on the processing machine. For example, when electronic computers are used, the input data could be recorded on any one of several types of input medium, such as magnetic disks, tapes and so on.
  • Processing - In this step input data is changed to produce data in a more useful form. For example, paychecks may be calculated from the time cards, or a summary of sales for the month may be calculated from the sales orders.
  • Output - The result of the proceeding processing step are collected. The particular form of the output data depends on the use of the data. For example, output data may be pay-checks for employees.